Uluslararası İlişkiler Yüksek Lisans Programı / International Relations Master's Degree Program

Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://hdl.handle.net/11413/78

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Iranian Foreign Policy Towards the Syrian Crisis: (2011-2021)
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) KATTAN, MOHAMMAD IMAD; Bora Bayraktar
Iran was the first supporter of the Syrian regime and interfered with the Syrian crisis with all its military, security, economic, political, and social weight in Syrian civil war which erupted in march 2011. The depth of its intervention differed from all the countries involved in the Syrian crisis. Syria is critical for Iran within Iranian national security, Shiite geopolitics, regional isolation, and shared threat perceptions. A state of singularity characterizes the Iranian-Syrian relationship and crystallizes as an inevitable fateful relationship, either winning or losing together. Iran consolidated its influence and continues to penetrate the state's institutions in terms of military, security, economic, and social. The (social engineering) and demographic change is a unique case that distinguished Iran from all foreign powers that intervened in Syria, and it severely impacted the unity of Syrian soil.
The Role of Cultural Activities in Preserving the Palestinian Idntity in Occupied East Jerusalem
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) SHURRAB, HATEM M. M.; Bora Bayraktar
The Israel-Palestine conflict in the city of Jerusalem is not only about who dominates control over the land and religious sites, but it includes a cultural struggle used as a soft power. Palestinians have faced massive challenges in preserving their national identity in the city, so this research attempts to examine Palestinian cultural efforts against the Israeli narrative. The study adopted reliable methods including qualitative, historical and exploratory research and interviews with Palestinians working in the cultural field, the study focused on how Palestinians handle the Israeli policies and restrictions - against cultural activities - to emphasize the Palestinian identity of Jerusalem. The study found out the major obstacles facing Palestinians in preserving their identity in the city which were objective because of the bitter reality of the occupation, and subjective because of the shortcomings in managing the cultural field in Jerusalem. The findings of the study were that the Palestinians partially succeeded in reviving the Palestinian cultural narrative as means of preserving identity, but not in the desired manner, due to the difference in the balance of power that tends in favor of the occupation. The study concluded with many recommendations, the most important was to consolidate efforts by all stakeholders including scholars, religious figures, intellectuals, Palestinian organizations and supporters to empower and improve the Palestinian cultural presence in the city. Along with providing the necessary financial support to establish and support cultural activities and Palestinian steadfastness in Jerusalem in general.
Impacts of East Mediterranean Gas Forum on the Energy Security
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) DÖŞLÜ, SENA; Çağla Gül Yesevi
For centuries, the Eastern Mediterranean has been one of the world's most important strategic transit routes. In today's modern world, the situation is the same; there are many conflicts between the countries in the Eastern Mediterranean region. In this thesis, the regional disputes and conflicts are analyzed focusing on the East Mediterranean Gas Forum. The problems of countries today are different from those of the past. Considering the regional problems, it is understood that energy security is one of the critical problems. Energy security and recent natural gas discoveries are important issues of the Eastern Mediterranean region. This thesis focuses on the impact of the East Mediterranean Gas Forum on energy security. The liberal institutionalism theory used in the thesis is the most appropriate theory to explain the historical developments and evolution of the East Mediterranean Gas Forum. It is analyzed whether the East Mediterranean Gas Forum impacts Europe's ability to overcome its energy crisis. In this study, the impact of the development of the East Mediterranean Gas Forum on the European energy crisis is explained. The East Mediterranean Gas Forum which is an international organization will be effective in solving the European energy crisis. It will be strengthened in its cooperation with Türkiye. Conflicts related to energy security will be able to be solved with Türkiye's involvement in the cooperation process in the region and with its bilateral agreements. In addition, if the parties agree on the necessary conditions, it will be possible to end the conflicts. Improvement of bilateral relations between Türkiye and regional countries will strengthen cooperation in the Eastern Mediterranean. The thesis also analyzes the development of the East Mediterranean Gas Forum over the years and explains the roles played by the member countries in this process. The Republic of Türkiye is not a member of this forum. This thesis focuses on the regional energy security implications and contributions of the East Mediterranean Gas Forum and Türkiye. As an influential actor in the region, Türkiye's relations with Israel, Greece, and Egypt, the East Mediterranean Gas Forum members, are analyzed. The relations among the countries in the Eastern Mediterranean are analyzed from a historical perspective. The energy security in the Eastern Mediterranean can be accomplished with multilateral cooperation among the member states of the East Mediterranean Gas Forum and with the help of Türkiye's involvement in this cooperation process.
The Challenges of the French Secularism on the Lives of Muslim Women
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) FARAH, HAMDA ABDOU; Nazlı Çağın Bilgili
This thesis explores the challenges encountered by Muslim women in France due to secularism, a key principle of French society. By focusing on the complex interactions between secularism, religious identity, and gender, this research examines the tensions and conflicts experienced by Muslim women in their daily lives. The study analyzes French secular policies and laws, including the ban on full-face veiling, and their impact on the rights and freedoms of Muslim women. It also examines the psychological, social, and cultural repercussions of these measures on their sense of belonging and ability to express their religious and cultural identity. Furthermore, this research examines the specific challenges faced by Muslim women in areas such as education, employment, and access to public services due to secularism and the stereotypes and prejudices associated with their religion. The primary objective of this research is to provide an in-depth analysis of the interactions between secularism, gender, and religious identity, this thesis contributes to a better understanding of the challenges faced by Muslim women in France and aims to promote constructive and inclusive dialogue on the issue of secularism in French society.
Present Day Development and Future Perspectives of Turkish-Kyrgyz Relations
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) AALAI, GÜLŞANA; Ahmet Cemal Ertürk
In the light of Central Asia's geopolitical situation, this paper examines Kyrgyz- Turkish political and military cooperation. Its goal is to learn more about the challenges and opportunities that the two countries' bilateral relations present. The chronological framework of the study covers the period from 1991 to 2021. The time frame of this work allows one to fully trace the dynamics of changes in political and military processes in Central Asia, to explore the evolution of the foreign policy strategies of Turkey in Kyrgyzstan. The study has revealed that Kyrgyzstan continues to be a zone of competition in the implementation of the regional foreign policy aspirations of Russia and Turkey. Therefore, the process of interaction requires the development of a flexible and variable policy. The regional powers have different interests in Kyrgyzstan, so their activities in this country are not only in the nature of cooperation in security issues, but also rivalry in cultural and educational policies. The Turkish authorities are trying to optimize the policy aimed at developing further integration with the Central Asian republics, including Kyrgyzstan, both on a multilateral platform and on a bilateral basis.
The Contribution of IHH's Humanitarian Activities in the South and Southeast Asia to Turkiye's Foreign Policy
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) REEZA, AQMAL AHSAN MOHAMED; Hazal Papuççular Kutlu
This thesis claims that International non-governmental organizations can play a major role in having an impact in the foreign relationship of the States concerned, by having IHH's example over the state of Turkiye. NGOs began to gain high prominence in the dynamic world order that evolved especially after the end of Cold War in the late nineties. Although they don't possess powers like military power those of the states nor economic power those of the multinational companies, NGOs are powerful and influential themselves in their nature; with their uniquely developed strategies that help them to gain access to all the places and reach all kinds of communities around the world without having to resist nor resort to the use of force. These characteristics make them have an impact over the international relationship of the states. This thesis is prepared by using the sources from the field work of IHH, by genuine examples of how it has acted not only as an aid provider but also as humanitarian advocate at times and how its actions have influenced the improvement of foreign relationship of the state of Turkiye thus paving way to the finding of their positive impact over the image and soft power of the Country.
High Policy Analysis From the Copenhagen School Perspective : The Securitization of the Post-Cold War Climate Crisis
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) GEZER, SELEN; İbrahim Mensur Akgün
The groundbreaking discovery in 1896 by renowned chemist Svante Arrhenius, which established a link between greenhouse gas emissions and atmospheric changes, marked a significant turning point in research on the human-induced origins of the climate crisis. A century later, as the effects of the Cold War began to shape international relations, the Climate Crisis transitioned from being perceived as a low-policy issue to a high policy priority. Advancements in technology and scientific studies led to a collective agreement among experts, with the United Nations taking the lead in addressing these challenges. Since the 1990s, the climate crisis has evolved into not only an environmental problem but also a global social and ecological crisis that necessitates a reevaluation of global political and economic systems. Addressing the causes and consequences of the climate crisis requires a global perspective and a security-oriented approach. Greenhouse gas emissions, which contribute to the greenhouse effect, are a worldwide phenomenon and thus constitute a global problem, albeit with significant regional variations that need to be understood. This research examines the link between the climate crisis and security through a multidisciplinary approach, investigating the causes of framing climate issues as urgent security concerns.
Iraq in the Triangle of the Unipolar International System, Terrorism, and Iranian Influence
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) NORI, SOFIAN SABAH; İbrahim Mensur Akgün
This thesis explores the motives and ramifications of the American invasion of Iraq. This thesis seeks to answer the research question, "What are the consequences of the American invasion of Iraq after 2003 on Baghdad and Washington?" Specifically, this study will shed light on the question of to what extent this invasion's decision has been affected by the American purpose of spreading democracy and fighting terrorism as Washington promised or if the U.S. removed Saddam Hussein's regime to emphasize the status quo of the unipolar international system after the Cold War. This study investigates the different elements that have played a significant role in shaping the decision of the invasion and the course after that.
Challenges and Responses in Tunisian Activism a Study of Tunisian Social Movements in the Post Revolutionary Period
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) ZOUAOUI, SARRA; Nazlı Çağın Bilgili; Ahmet Cemal Ertürk
This thesis analyzes the development of Tunisian activism in the post the 2011 period, focusing on the challenges facing social movements in the country. This study examines the history of Tunisian activism from colonial rule to the present day, with a particular emphasis on the post-revolution period. Drawing on existing literature and theory, the study identifies the emergence of new forms of digital activism and transnational networks and the fragmentation of social movements into multiple competing organizations as key features of post-revolutionary Tunisian activism. Building on this analysis, the study develops a specific hypothesis that the Tunisian state's response to post-revolutionary Tunisian activism, including co-optation and repression, has created significant challenges for social movements in sustaining mobilization and achieving substantive social and political change. This hypothesis is tested by examining the state's response to activist mobilization, including its use of media and surveillance, as well as analyzing the challenges faced by social movements, such as generational divides and the difficulties of coordinating across organizations. The study concludes by reflecting on the implications of these findings for the future of Tunisian activism and the broader implications for social movements in the Middle East and North Africa. Ultimately, this thesis contributes to a deeper understanding of the complexities of post-revolutionary politics in Tunisia and the challenges activists face to build a more just and democratic society.
Natural Gas Policies of Türkiye: Relations with the EU and Israel
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) ALGHARIB, MOHAMMED M. M.; Çağla Gül Yesevi
Türkiye had an increasingly important role for many years as a transit state for oil and, recently, for natural gas. Massive amounts of fossil fuels pass through Türkiye from Eurasia, Russia, and The Middle East through major pipelines and different ways, which put Türkiye in a significant position to affect and be affected by the international energy map. Understanding the links between Turkish natural gas policies and the leading players in the international energy arena seems to be an endless process. This process appears to be challenging because of the complications of the inputs and the various components -either for the Turkish domestic natural gas profile itself or for the regional difficulties-which are influenced by many agendas. This study aims to shed light on the natural gas politics of Türkiye based on the fact that states face potential challenges when making their economic and political decisions based on their strategic interests, especially its natural gas position and natural gas security. This study aims to answer the questions: "What motivates Türkiye's natural gas policies?" and "How do Türkiye's foreign policy and Türkiye's natural gas policies affect and integrate each other?" by discussing how the change in priorities of Türkiye's natural gas politics redesigned based on the successive events in the region and Türkiye's internal affairs since the beginning of the JDP party's rule. This study analyzes the theoretical backgrounds of these issues by using neorealism theory. Additionally, the study suggests that Türkiye's natural gas policies depend on its situation as an important transit state and its needs as a consumption state. Thus, Türkiye's natural gas policies are integrated with its foreign policies and put weight on them to increase the possibility to adopt and establish more active relations with Israel and the EU to earn more relative gains.
The Role of United Nations in Economic and Social Development of Iraq Between 2003-2021
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) DALAL, SARA; Ahmet Cemal Ertürk
Ending several years of conflict between many different parties in Iraq, the Sunni, Shi'a and probably between Persians and Arabs which caused humanitarian and social tragedy in several states, describes as a platform of international terrorism and disturbance in oil production from the most significant area that affecting the global oil markets, so because of these factors the UN played a serious role that is necessary and justified even if we can't guarantee the success. In this research by using Secondary source in order to describe the significant role of UN in developing economic and social sectors of Iraq between 2003 until 2021. The year 2003 was a turning point on the political level in Iraq, which witnessed a series of changes and challenges in particular on the economic and social situations, so the questions are: how did the Iraqi people adapt to the difficult conditions? How the UN played a significant role through its relationship with the Iraqi Government? However, the development of economic and social conditions by the UN played a role in revealing many details.
The New World Order: Fall of Unilateralism and the Rise of Pluralism
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) ALYEH, RAGHDA; İbrahim Mensur Akgün
After World War II in 1945 and the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States remains militarily and economically a powerful nation-state; American soft power has also helped to establish democratic principles, universal human rights, and world order. However, the liberal international order or western values promoted by the USA and Europe under which international norms operate are threatened. Norms like sovereignty and territorial integrity, international humanitarian law, democratic values, and economic liberalism are under risk. Rising powers like China, India, and Russia challenge US hegemony in world politics. The inability of the US to stop Iran from developing its nuclear program, Russian invasion of Ukraine, China-Taiwan tensions, the failure of American troops in Afghanistan, the American failure to end the war in Syria, etc. demonstrate how US hegemonic power is in decline. This research will investigate economic, political, and social factors behind the fall of unilateralism and the rise of pluralism. This research will have four chapters. Naturally, chapter one will include an introduction to the topic, a research question, hypotheses, the methodology to gather and analyze data, the significance or importance of the study, and the theoretical framework within which the arguments will be based. Chapter two will present a literature review about the decline of the USA hegemony to formulate a research gap. Chapter three, the most important chapter, will constitute the analysis of the work. We will test our hypotheses in chapter three. And then chapter 4 will be the concluding chapter and recommendations.
The Role of the Palestine Liberation Organization in Establishing the Foundations of Palestinian Diplomacy
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) HUMEID, MOHAMMED; Nazlı Çağın Bilgili
This research thesis aims to clarify the role of diplomacy in giving legitimacy to liberation movements after it was limited to states only with their international legal personality in the international system, and by recognizing the international effectiveness of non-state persons to practice diplomatic work. The study also aims to clarify the role of the PLO in establishing the foundations of Palestinian diplomacy before moving to state diplomacy, as Palestinian diplomacy constituted a unique case as it was a precedent for the state. The PLO has practiced diplomatic work since its inception years, and opened diplomatic offices that formed the nucleus to support the contemporary Palestinian revolution, and to mobilize international support for the demand for national rights to independence, and the establishment of an independent Palestinian state. The importance of this research lies in its contribution to the formation of a comprehensive view of decision-makers when dealing with or developing political and diplomatic laws in the field of international relations in order to reach the fastest and most appropriate political solution regarding the Palestinian issue, which allows them to rely on it as one of the sources instead of having to start the search from the beginning to the end in order to make the best decision.
Assessing the Normative Power of the European Union on Tunisian Democracy: Navigating Local Challenges at Major Crossroads
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2023) JENNANA, MARWENE BEN; Ahmet Cemal Ertürk
The shared history between the European Union and Tunisia is widely deemed to evoke a longstanding relation based on mutual benefit as well as common cultural heritage. The country is considered an important historical ally of the European Union in terms of economic and military collaboration. The bilateral relations have been positively assessed until the occurrence of the arab spring in the wake of the year 2010, the period during which a third element emerged as an additional incentive for more strategic approximation. This thesis investigates the impact of the European Union (EU) on the development of democracy in Tunisia during the period from 2011 to 2022. The central research question seeks to elucidate the extent to which the EU's external aid has benefitted Tunisian democracy while shedding light on the responsiveness of the 2019 regime to the European implementation of the domestic democratic framework. To answer this question, In addition, the researcher conducted interviews with diplomats and state personnel from Tunisia who have vested work and time in both the pre-revolution and post-revolution periods. The study contends that the EU sought to bring a modernizing parameter to Tunisia by providing financial, political, and technical aid that sought to install solid democracy in the country. However, the researcher found that the EU's efforts were originally insufficient and non-conforming the initial rhetoric of EU officials. The study also argues that the Tunisian democratic example has been undermined by the events of July 25, 2021, which obliged the country to regress back into one-man rule primarily spearheaded by the freezing of the work of the national assembly due to corruption and economic issues that preceded it caused mainly by the COVID-19 pandemic
The Language Policy and the Linguistic Rights in Syria: The Kurdish Language a Pattern
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2022) SULAIMAN, MOHAMMAD ISSA; Nazlı Çağın Bilgili
Language policy is a tool for regulating State-building and allocating resources among different language groups. However, in some countries with ethnic-language groups, the language policy is a source of conflicts between language groups and the state because of its symbolic value for the ethnic groups. The attitude of language groups towards the language policy in the state is shaped by their comprehension of language policy and their relations with the state; therefore, those language groups head for perceive Language in different ways as well, and they have different demands, with different demands, with different paths. This study investigates the Kurdish situation in Syria from a language perspective. Syria has been conflict-stricken since 2011. This conflict is partially in the policy of the ruling ethnic majority, being practised since the establish the country after WWI against the minority. This policy's best manifestation has been in the language domain, where the state has adopted various assimilatory strategies against ethnic minority groups, chief among which has been the Kurdish community. The Kurds are an ethno-language group whose citizenship has often been previously questionable. As a result, the Syrian state's language policy has led to tripled minoritization and oppression of the Kurds. Therefore, my study will prove vital to understanding the state's assimilatory strategies in the domain of language in a multiethnic polity such as Syria. My paper will study the Kurdish language status in Syria in creating the national identity for Kurds in Syria. Also, it will attend to the government's sociolinguistic and Language policies and planning. Through this study, I will investigate the state documents (Constitutions, Decrees, internal status for government institutions, and organizations), the publications released by Kurds in Syria and interviews with the representatives of Kurds in Syria. Further, the study will investigate the linguistics justice from the human rights approach and the issue of protecting minority languages and linguistic diversity in establishing a democratic system in Syria. Broadly, the Kurdish groups view the language policy as a question of recognition, and they demand that their language be given the same status as the Arabic language. In order to satisfy the demands and interests of this linguistic group, any future policymakers in Syria should take these into account when creating language policies.
An Assessment of the Socio-Economic Impact of Boko Haram Insurgency in the Northeast of Nigeria
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2022) BELLO, HIDAYA SHEHU; Muzaffer Şenel
Using the frustration-aggression theory, this research could assess the socioeconomic impact of the Boko Haram Insurgency in the North East of Nigeria. This research was able to assess the find out that the Boko Haram insurgency has caused unbearable economic hardships in the North Eastern part of the country, and in extension in most parts of Nigeria. This research finds out that illiteracy/ignorance, unemployment, porous borders, arms proliferation, etc. have been the root causes of the Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria; its aftermath is underdevelopment, poverty, fear, drug abuse, more IDPs, etc. The importance of this research is that it will help further researchers who want to research similar topics. This research emphasizes that adequate reforms, policies and regulations have to be unified from the three tiers of Federal, State and Local governments of Nigeria; border security will have to be strengthened, and there should be qualified control of the inflow of arms into the country, educating the civilians on self-defence should also take as a focal point.
Negotiating Cyprus: The Missing Dimension
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2022) ÖZYURT, NİYAZİ ONUR; İbrahi̇m Mensur Akgün
The Cyprus Problem started as an ethnic conflict within a small circle and reached international dimensions by enlarging its circle. Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots are the founding duos and the two most populous communities on the island. Although historically the starting point differs according to the parties, the problem in Cyprus started to be shaped since the mid-1950s. This problem resulted in a Republic with the 1960 international treaties, the Republic of Cyprus. Only, the Republic of Cyprus did not last longevity. The Republic of Cyprus continued, but the rights of Turkish Cypriots remained on paper. The events of late 1963 and 1964 marked the beginning of insecurities at the far end between the parties to be experienced in the future. The Cyprus Negotiations is the general name of the numerous talks held for a solution. Discussion of the federal state system for the solution has been ongoing since the mid-1960s. However, the rapprochements experienced in the name of a solution served a purpose, except for a solution. The Cyprus negotiations have become a conundrum due to the different interpretations of the federal partnership by the parties. Consequently, it is apparent that the Federation proposal has been blocked and has been no concrete result achieved for years. In Cyprus problem, where alternative solutions may be discussed, proposals other than the Federation deserve serious consideration.
The Turkstream Pipeline and Its Impact on Turkiye-Russia Energy Relations
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2022) ÜNSAL, GAMZE; Çağla Gül Yesevi
The need for energy is growing every day in the modern world. As this requirement grows, so does the countries' dependence on energy, which increases the cost of energy importation for those countries. This thesis is based on the relations between Türkiye and Russia in light of the political and economic indicators centered on the TurkStream and its energy dependence. In this study, recent Türkiye-Russia energy relations are examined from the perspective of interdependence. The role of energy in Türkiye-Russia political relations and the importance of the TurkStream project will be discussed. The relations between Türkiye-Russia are improving, especially in the energy sector and the general economy. In this regard, the interdependence approach has been used to examine Türkiye's geographical importance, rising energy needs, and mutual economic interest/benefit variables between the two countries. In addition, this thesis will also examine how political problems affect the relations between Türkiye and Russia. Energy cooperation between Türkiye and Russia has improved despite political problems from time to time. This thesis will analyze how Türkiye-Russia relations are affected by the TurkStream project and whether these relations can continue in the future from a liberal perspective based on the theory of interdependence. This thesis will be a scenario for Türkiye-Russia relations in the future.
Türkiye and Russia Relations Within the Framework of Turkiye's Energy Policy
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2022) HAMZAÇEBİ, RÜMEYSA; Çağla Gül Yesevi
The main factor that provides economic, social, political and many areas of development of countries is to use of energy. Energy resources are the most vital inputs of daily life and production is made for energy and industrial products. For this reason, those who govern the country and undertake managerial roles in energy have to supply energy through uninterrupted, reliable, timely, clean and cheap ways to meet the needs of society and the energy sector. Given the energy supply security, they must also provide energy at the most affordable prices and diversify these sources. In this regard, the energy policy put forward by the states should be self-renewing, consistent and realistic, and should also be target-oriented. This study focuses on how Türkiye became a role model in energy policy and this policy's repercussions on the bilateral relations between Türkiye and Russia. The main purpose of this thesis is to answer whether the relations between Türkiye and Russia are based on energy competition or strategic partnerships.
New Challenges After COVID-19 and Turkiye's Response
(İstanbul Kültür Üniversitesi, 2022) ÖZGÜR, EMRE; Bora Bayraktar
Every age has its own phenomenon that shape the world order. In the medieval period, it was religion. In the enlightenment, it was science. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, it was the rise of nationalism. In our age, developments in communication (most notably the internet) and transportation make globalization a critical concept. Especially with the Covid-19 pandemic, the advantages and disadvantages of globalization have become a hot topic. Whether or not we are on the verge of a new world order is on the agenda of academicians, researchers, strategy experts and policymakers. The President of the USA, Joe Biden, said that there's going to be a new world order and his country has to lead it. When the pandemic broke out, Chinese President Xi Jinping highlighted that from now on, the international community has to see humanity as one community. Also, Türkiye's President, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, emphasized that the world order will not be the same after the pandemic and the notion of state will evolve accordingly to today's needs. This study tries to explain different world orders in the past and the direction of the change in today's world. The reasons behind Türkiye's new economic and political paradigms and the way it adapts to today's conjuncture are analysed.

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